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McMurry 
How  to  conduct  the  recitation 


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!alifornia 

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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 

LOS  ANGELES 

GIFT  OF 
Kate  Gordon  Moore 


^ 

EAQIERS 


MANVAL5 

No.  13. 

How  to  Conduct 
'        the  Recitation 

and  the 

Principles  Underlying  Methods  of 
Teaching  in  Classes. 


^  CHARLES  McMuRRY,  PH.  D. 

l/^        Of  the  State  Normal  School,  at  DeKalb,  111. 

o 


Copyright,  1890,  by 


J-NEW  YORK/  CA£ HICAGO 

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How  TO  CONDUCT 
THE  RECITATION, 


Principles  underlying  Methods  of  Teaching 
in  Classes. 


CHARLES  McMuRRY,  PH.D., 

PROFESSOR  OF  EDUCATIONAL  METHODS  AND  PRACTICE  IN  THE  STATE 
NORMAL  SCHOOL,  WINONA,  MINN. 


NEW  YORK  AND  CHICAGO  :    . 

E.  L   KELLOGG  &  CO. 


Copyright,  1890, 

BY  E.  L.  KELLOGG  &  Co., 

Ne*  York. 


Stack 
Annex 


US 

INTRODUCTION. 


The  Herbart  School. — This  paper  is  in  the 
main  an  exposition  of  some  of  the  leading  ideas 
which  have  been  developed  theoretically  and 
practically  by  the  Herbart  school  of  pedagogy 
in  Germany.  The  late  Professor  Ziller  of  the 
University  of  Leipzig  was  a  disciple  of  Herbart, 
and  an  original  thinker  of  unusual  powers.  He 
recast  Herbart's  ideas  on  education  in  a  new 
mould,  and  sought  in  his  practice  school  at  the 
university  to  make  these  principles  the  basis  of 
systematic  class-room  work  for  the  public 
schools.  Prof.  W.  Rein  of  the  University  of 
Jena  and  many  other  disciples  of  Ziller,  since 
well  known  as  practical  teachers,  have  put 
Ziller's  ideas  into  practice  during  the  last  twenty 
years,  and  have  illustrated  them  in  all  the 
studies  and  grades  of  the  common  school.  No 
attempt  is  made  to  present  all  the  important 
ideas  of  the  Herbart  school,  or  to  give  an  ex- 
haustive discussion  of  any  one.  After  a  brief 
survey  of  certain  leading  ideas,  there  follows  a 
fuller  discussion  of  a  definite  and  systematic 
plan  of  class-room  teaching.  A  translation  from 
Professor  Rein  is  appended. 


840334 


THE    ESSENTIAL    ELEMENTS    OF    GOOD 
RECITATION   WORK. 


Facts  and  their  Connection. — A  liberal  educa- 
tion embraces  a  good  many  branches  of  study. 
Besides  the  subjects  of  the  common  school,  there 
are  history,  classics  and  higher  mathematics,  the 
natural  sciences  and  the  fine  arts,  political  econo- 
my, literature  and  philosophy.  We  are  all  natural- 
ly inclined  to  think  that  the  more  facts  we  have 
collected,  the  more  information  we  have  gathered 
in  each  of  these  topics,  the  better  educated  and 
the  wiser  we  shall  be.  But  this  is  only  a  half  or 
a  quarter  true.  The  strength  of  an  army  does 
not  consist  in  the  number  of  men  alone,  as  Xerxes 
discovered  long  ago,  but  in  the  kind  of  men,  in 
their  strength  and  courage,  in  their  power  of 
united  action.  Our  knowledge  is  really  ser-' 
viceable  to  us  only  as  it  is  combined  into  con- 
nected compact  masses  ready  for  varied  use. 
The  purpose  of  the  school,  then,  is  not  simply 
to  accumulate  knowlege,  but  also  to  arrange 
and  connect,  to  organize  and  energize  the  facts 
learned,  to  bring  them  into  potent  combination; 
just  as  a  general  first  enlists  recruits,  then  dis- 
ciplines them  into  soldiers  and  organizes  them 


6      ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  &ECITA  TION  WORK, 

into  an  effective  army.  The  facts  commonly 
learned  in  the  schools  are  indeed  the  materials 
out  of  which  our  intellectual  house  is  to  be 
built,  but  we  are  concerned  not  only  about  get- 
ting these  materials  into  the  structure  of  the 
mind,  but  about  the  plan  and  order  there  \z 
among  them,  and  whether  the  walls  are  loose 
and  shaky  or  firm  and  solidly  built. 

Digesting  Knowledge. — The  stomach  and  the 
mind  are  alike  in  some  points  and  unlike  in 
others.  The  food  that  once  enters  the  stomach 
is  taken  up  and  assimilated  by  the  organs  of  di- 
gestion. Our  chief  care  is  to  avoid  overload- 
ing the  stomach,  and  to  give  it  a  chance  to 
perform  its  functions.  It  is  self-acting.  The 
materials  which  enter  the  mind  pass  through 
a  digestive  process;  and  this  lasts  longer.  A 
cow  chews  her  cud  once;  but  the  ideas  which 
have  entered  our  minds  may  be  chewed  over 
and  over  again,  and  that  with  great  profit. 
Ideas  do  not  assimilate  so  easily  as  the  different 
food-materials  in  the  body.  Ideas  have  to  be 
put  side  by  side,  compared,  separated,  grouped, 
and  arranged  into  connected  series.  Thus  they 
become  organized  for  use.  This  sorting,  ar- 
ranging, and  connecting  of  ideas  is  so  important 
that  it  demands  more  time  and  more  care  than 
the  first  labor  of  acquisition. 

Absorption  and  Reflection. — The  process  of  ac- 
quiring and  assimilating  knowledge  involves 
certain  simple  conditions  which  are  easily  stated. 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TIO K  WORK.       / 

When  some  new  object  presents  itself  to  the 
mind  the  attention  must  be  first  fixed  upon  it 
for  a  while  so  that  there  may  be  time  to  take  it 
in  as  a  whole  and  in  its  parts.  The  mind  then 
recovers  itself  from  this  momentary  absorption 
in  the  object,  and  begins  to  survey  it  in  its  sur- 
roundings and  connections.  Absorption  and 
reflection!  The  mind  swings  back  and  forth 
like  a  pendulum  between  these  two  operations. 
Herbart,  who  has  closely  defined  this  process, 
calls  it  the  mental  agt  of  breathing.  As  regu- 
larly as  the  air  is  drawn  into  the  lungs  and 
then  excluded,  so  regularly  does  the  mind  lose 
itself  in  its  absorption  with  an  object  only  to 
recover  itself  and  reflect  upon  it. 

In  this  first  simple  action  of  the  mind  are  re- 
flected the  two  fundamental  principles  which 
control  all  growth  in  knowledge. 

Observation. — The  first  is  the  inspection  of 
things  in  themselves  and  in  their  details. 
Absorption  with  objects!  Object  lessons!  The 
principle  of  observation  is  confirmed  in  its  full 
scope.  The  training  of  the  senses  to  the  full 
capacity  of  sense  of  perception  is  primary  and 
necessary.  The  contact  with  nature,  the  actual 
experience  with  things,  is  the  only  concrete  basis 
of  knowledge. 

Survey. — The  second  principle  is  the  act  of 
reflecting  upon  the  things  which  enter  the  mind, 
the  comparison  of  objects.  It  brings  together 
things  that  are  alike,  e.g.,  the  river  basins  of 


8      ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

North  America  and  the  river  basins  of  South 
America.  It  throws  into  contrast  things  that 
differ,  e.g.,  the  desert  of  the  Sahara  and  the  rich 
moist  valley  of  the  Amazon.  By  a  constant 
use  of  reflection  and  survey  we  classify  our  in- 
creasing knowledge  into  larger  and  smaller 
groups;  causes  are  linked  with  their  results, 
and  the  spirit  of  investigation  is  awakened 
which  discovers  and  traces  out  those  simple 
laws  which  underlie  the  complex  phenomena  of 
nature.  The  linking  together  of  ideas  into  con- 
tinuous series,  the  comparison  of  objects  so  as 
to  bring  out  the  salient  features  of  whole  classes, 
and  the  tracing  of  causes  and  results  are  means 
of  organizing,  of  binding  together,  ideas  which 
must  be  at  the  disposal  of  teachers  in  their  reci- 
tation work  or  the  higher  results  of  education 
will  not  be  reached.  We  may  sum  up  the 
thoughts  involved  in  this  second  great  principle 
of  learning  as  Association  of  Ideas. 

Apperception. — Going  back  to  the  first  simple 
state  of  the  mind  in  learning,  its  absorption  in 
a  given  object,  the  question  arises,  How  can 
any  new  or  partially  new  object  be  best  under- 
stood at  its  first  appearance?  How  can  a  full 
and  distinct  understanding  of  it  be  readily 
gained  by  the  mind  ?  We  claim  that  if  the 
kindred  ideas  already  in  the  mind  are  awakened 
and  brought  distinctly  to  the  front  the  new 
object  will  be  more  rapidly  and  accurately  ap- 
propriated than  by  any  other  means.  This  is 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK.      Q 

called  the  principle  of  apperception,  i.e.  the  re- 
ception of  a  new  or  partially  new  idea  by  the 
assistance  of  kindred  ideas  already  in  the  mind. 
If  old  friends  come  out  to  meet  the  strangers 
and  throw  their  arms  about  them  and  lead  them 
within,  how  much  more  quickly  they  will  be  at 
home!  But  these  old  friends  who  are  already 
in  the  house,  who  stand  in  the  background  of 
our  thoughts,  must  be  awakened  and  called  to 
the  front,  they  must  stand  on  tiptoe  ready  to 
welcome  the  new-comer;  for  if  they  lie  asleep 
in  the  penetralia  of  the  home,  these  strangers 
will  come  up  and  pass  by  for  lack  of  a  welcome. 
Closely  allied  to  this  is  the  principle  of  proceeding 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown,  which  has  caused 
so  much  discussion  and  misunderstanding.  Ap- 
perception contains  what  is  true  in  this  idea  of 
going  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  As 
soon  as  we  see  something  new  a-nd  desire  to 
understand  it,  we  at  once  begin  to  ransack  our 
stock  of  ideas  to  see  if  we  can  find  anything  in 
our  previous  experience  which  corresponds  to 
this  or  is  like  it.  For  whatever  is  like  it,  or  has 
an  analogy  to  it,  or  serves  the  same  uses,  will 
explain  this  new  thing,  though  the  two  objects 
be  in  other  points  essentially  different.  We  are 
constantly  falling  back  on  our  old  experiences 
and  classifications  for  the  explanation  of  new 
objects  that  appear  to  us. 

Examples   of    Apperception. — A   boy    goes    to 
town  and  sees  a  banana  for  the  first  time,  and 


10  ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK. 

asks,  "  What  is  that  ?  I  never  saw  anything  like 
that."  He  thinks  he  has  no  class  of  things  to 
which  it  belongs,  no  place  to  put  it.  His  father 
answers  that  it  is  to  eat,  like  an  orange  or  a  pear. 
Calling  up  these  familiar  objects,  the  whole  sig- 
nificance of  the  new  thing  is  clear  to  him  though 
it  differs  from  anything  he  has  ever  seen.* 

From  Simple  to  Complex. — The  notion  of  going 
from  the  simple  to  the  complex  is  illustrated 
also  in  the  simple  process  of  the  mind  which  we 
described.  First  one  object,  then  the  survey 
of  it  in  connection  with  other  things,  forming  a 
complex  unit.  This  idea  has  been  confused 
with  the  idea  of  going  from  a  whole  to  the 

*  We  will  add  one  other  illustration  of  apperception.  Two 
men,  the  one  a  machinist  and  one  who  is  not,  visit  the  machin- 
ery hall  of  an  exposition.  The  machinist  finds  new  inventions 
and  novel  applications  of  old  principles.  He  is  much  inter- 
ested in  examining  and  understanding  these  new  machines  and 
devices.  He  passes  from  one  machine  to  another,  noting 
down  new  points,  and  at  the  end  of  an  hour  leaves  the  hall 
with  a  mind  enriched.  The  other  man  sees  the  same  ma- 
chines, but  does  not  understand  them.  He  sees  their  parts, 
but  does  not  detect  the  principle  of  their  construction.  His 
previous  experience  is  not  sufficient  to  give  him  the  clue  to 
their  explanation.  After  an  hour  of  uninterested  observa- 
tion, he  leaves  the  hall  with  a  confused  notion  of  shafts, 
wheels,  cogs,  bands,  etc.,  but  with  no  greater  insight  into 
the  principles  of  machinery.  Why  has  one  man  learned  so 
much  and  the  other  nothing  ?  Because  the  machinist  had 
previous  knowledge  and  experience  which  acted  as  interpre- 
ters, while  the  other  man  had  no  old  ideas  and  so  acquired 
nothing  new.  "  To  him  that  hath  shall  be  given." 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    1 1 

parts.  But  there  is  no  real  contradiction.  There 
are  many  objects  which  we  first  take  in  as  a  whole, 
and  then  descend  to  an  analysis  of  their  parts, 
e.g.,  a  camel,  a  mountain,  a  flower.  Almost  all 
concrete  objects  are  approached  in  this  way. 
But  there  is  an  entirely  different  set  of  ideas 
which  can  be  best  approached  gradually,  adding 
part  to  part  and  comparing  till  the  whole  ap- 
pears. This  is  the  case  with  the  general  classifi- 
cations in  the  natural  sciences,  and  in  all  sub- 
jects that  admit  of  a  system  of  classified  ob- 
jects. 

Excite  Interest. — That  the  interest  of  children 
is  to  be  awakened  in  the  subject  of  study  may 
now  be  accepted  as  one  of  the  axioms  of  teach- 
ing. To  answer  the  important  question  how  a 
healthy  and  sustained  interest  is  to  be  awak- 
ened in  studies  would  be  to  solve  many  of  the 
greatest  difficulties  in  teaching.  To  interest 
children,  not  simply  for  the  hour,  but  perma- 
nently; to  select,  arrange,  and  so  present  ideas 
that  they  awaken  a  steady  appetite  for  more 
knowledge  and  create  a  taste  for  what  is  ex- 
cellent, this  at  least  is  one  aim  that  we  must 
insist  upon  in  recitation  work.  Some  things  al- 
ready mentioned  contribute  to  this  result.  Na- 
ture and  natural  objects  have  a  charm  for  us  all, 
children  included.  Story,  biography,  history, 
and  poetry,  each  in  its  place  and  time,  awakens 
mind  and  heart,  and  sows  seed  that  will  germi- 
nate and  grow. 


12    ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK. 

Compare. — In  school  life,  also,  the  more. seri- 
ous work  of  s.iudy  requires  ;us.  to  put  familiar 
objects  together  and  to  notice  how  they  resem- 
ble or  differ,  and  it  may  excite  interest  to  note 
the  superiority  of  one  or  its  defect.  This  gives 
children  a  chance  to  see  and  compare  for  them- 
selves* to  draw  conclusions  and  form  their  own 
opinions.  Still  more  the  tracing  of  causes  and 
their  effects,  the  following  out  of  analogies  in 
botany  and  zoology,  or  in  the  life  of  great  men, 
may  .'contribute  greatly  to  interest  oider  chil- 
dren. 

Arouse  Self-activity.— We  arev,^lrf  a^^^n- 
croaching  upon,  the  principle  of  self-actirity 
which  we.  believe,  with  many  other  teachers, 
sh-puld  be  systematically  encouraged  from  the 
beginning  of  school  life.:  The  child  itself  should 
have  something  to  do.,  some  aim  set  up  to  be 

O  i 

reached,  a  problem  .to  be  solved,  a  series  of 
objects,  places,  or  words  to  develop, — not  simply 
something  to  learn  .by  heart,  but  something  that 
requires  thought,  discovery,  invention,  arid  ar- 
rangement; e.g.  first-grade  children  may  be 

asked   to  hunt, .up   and   form   a   list   of  all    the 

1 

words  in.  the  lesson  containing  ///  or  //  or  some 
other  combination. 

Develop  Will  Power.  — 77/<?  effort,  to  create  a  pro- 
gressive and. sustained, interest  in  study  and  the 
arousing  of  self-activity  are  steps  preparatory 
to  the  growth  of  will  power.  This  is  one  of 
the  root  ideas  of  intellectual  as  well  as  of  moral 


good    recitation 


no 


14  ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

energy,  steadily  cultivated  from  the  earliest 
years  of  school  life,  indicate  that  it  is  not  simple 
knowledge  or  increased  information  which  we 
aim  ai,  but  increase  of  intellectual  resource,  and 
a  permanent,  progressive  interest  in  knowledge. 

Lesson  Unities. — It  is  evident  that  in  this  kind 
of  teaching  no  single  recitation  can  be  viewed 
apart  from  the  series  of  lessons  to  which  it  be- 
longs. The  subject-matter  of  any  study  should 
be  first  selected  so  as  to  be  adapted  to  the  age, 
spirit,  and  previous  knowledge  of  children,  and 
then  it  should  be  arranged  into  a  succession  of 
topics  or  unities  each  of  which  may  be  treated 
first  separately,  and  then  in  its  relation  to  the 
others.  One  of  these  methodical  unities  may 
be  completed  in  a  single  recitation  or  it  may 
spread  over  a  series  of  lessons.  • 

Steps  in  Teaching  a  Lesson. — On  the  basis  of  the 
psychological  principles  already  treated,  the  pro- 
cess of  teaching  a  new  topic  leads  through  a 
series  of  steps.  The  Herbartian  school  of  peda- 
gogy in  Germany  has  developed  a  plan  of  reci- 
tation work  based  upon  these  steps,  and  has 
applied  them  successfully  to  the  teaching  of 
common-school  studies.  The  two  main  stages 
on  the  road  to  acquisition  of  knowledge  have 
been  already  indicated:  i.  As  observation  and 
scrutiny  of  individual  things;  2.  As  the  associa- 
tion and  comparison  of  objects  or  ideas  with  a 
view  to  arrangement  into  classes  or  for  the  pur- 
pose of  generalizing  and  formulating  results. 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK,    I  5 

First  Stage  :  Presentation. — The  first  stage  may 
be  broken  into  two  smaller  half-day  journeys. 
Before  setting  out  on  a  journey  it  is  well  to  sur- 
vey the  road  and  glance  at  a  guide-book.  Be- 
fore beginning  a  new  subject  it  is  well  to  recall 
familiar  ideas  bearing  upon  it,  to  refresh  our 
minds.  This  is  a  preparatory  study,  a  making 
ready  for  the  lesson.  The  second  part  is  the 
actual  presentation  of  the  new  facts,  the  famil- 
iarizing the  mind  with  the  new  subject. 

The  subject-matter  is  now  at  hand,  and  the 
first  stage  of  teaching  the  lesson  is  complete. 
But  this  newly  acquired  information  has  not 
yet  settled  to  its  proper  place  in  the  mind;  it  is 
not  properly  associated  with  previous  knowl- 
edge. 

Second  Stage :  Elaboration. — This  elaboration  of 
newly  presented  ideas  and  facts  leads  us  through 
a  series  of  three  additional  steps,  which  thus 
complete  the  process  of  acquisition:  i.  The  new 
object  is  compared  with  similar  things  already 
in  the  mind.  In  this  way  it  finds  its  fitting 
companionship.  2.  Every  new  object  presented 
to  the  mind  and  then  compared  with  others 
gives  rise  to  new  conclusions.  The  clear  state- 
ment of  this  general  result  or  truth  focuses  the 
main  idea  of  the  lesson.  3.  This  general  truth 
may  now  be, exemplified  in  new  cases  and  ap- 
plied to  new  circumstances. 

Briefly  stated  the  steps  are  as  follows:  i.  Pre- 
paration; 2.  Presentation;  3.  Association  and 


ov/J   oJni    na/Jo'id  3d 
-il  mtifo-rejirvejoabered  .thai:  a 
tr£&te<il  <in  ctly&i  n^nner  must 
thoughtj;  jtihat  it 


d  generalization,    -i    sidT 
,the  -Farauer.—  'Thesie  steps  may  be 

in>.their 

analogy.  -jtaHemi  ^f  ixzuaoi  the 
Tdtoe  feoil  ife>  ipldughedi,  harroiwfixijfflnid'Ttyiade  wady 
foji'theriseedl  fie^riTIh&i^rajn'iis.sovwedoiipan  the 
reaxiy>j3biliaiwi  rnakedi  irfcoi  3J  pTihe/g^o  wingi  gnaiil 
ia  ciiltivjatfid'ifenjli  the^^eedp 
hiarwest  iajbrouightiiiir.v 
practical  purposes  of  food. 


Iprew 


of  instiffictioniioiTihi3jpresentaliijG)nqs,dowiH^jrtlaie 
sdejdr''uipOB:^thi^^  prepared)  soil  61  '-ithpnmind.  J  The 
^rirdrtstagesli!s;rthei  ortltivatiDni!  fof  .t 
dra»pi^feb«q  WDrikfing/  'jcxver^ofl  the 
acqiiicedljjy/  nieanejicxfrjCQTOpariJson.  i  The  fokarth 
step^is  thfil  harivBst  .time^ttbe;  dra/wing>ioitt;'oi:'.'tHp 
gdneanaiutrilthjior!  -law:  iavolved  in  the  lesson; 
Fin'ally^liKr>papiic'iila5r  us«e^toiwMrh  the?  harvest 
gc^airb  i&  pu^bhe/  applicitidri  >oi  :  acquired  knqwiH 
edge  to  the  practical  uses  off  life.;  baiiq 

rlfb.  Royal  Road  in  TeaohingJ-f-oEfoejeiTTfe  .steps 
just  outlinied  'aVe  based,  as  we  feeWive^  ongenrera^ 


ELEMENTS.  OF  GOOD  RECITA  T1ON  WORK. 


principles  which  make  them  applicable  to  al- 
most every  subject  of  study.  But  the  manner 
of  applying  them  to  different  studies  varies 
greatly.  The  ability  to  apply  them  successfully 
to  geography  would  not  qualify  for  equal  sac*1 
cess  in  arithmetic  or  botany.  The  teacher  must 
first  be  a  proficient  in  the;  study  which  he  would 
desire  to  teach  in  this  way.  Both  the  concrete 
facts-arid  the  general  truths  of  the  subject 
should  be  familiar  and  logically  arranged  in  his 
mind.  To  put  it.  in  a  mild  form,  the  teacher 
must  have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  his  sub- 
ject, and  must  have  this  knowledge  well  digested 
for  teaching  purposes  For  teaching  purposes  ! 
That  rs,  that  we  have  a  knowledge  of  those  psy- 
chological  principles-  which  we  first  outlined  as 
a  basis  of  the  five  steps,  vi.£.-#bserv.ation  of  con- 
crete -things,  apperception,  comparison  and  as^ 
sociation,  generalization  and  the  awakening-  of 
interest,  self-activity,  and  will  power-  by  these 
means.  Now  it  is  evident  that  no  platf  based 
on  these  principles  will  furnish  a  royal  road  to 
success  in  teaching.  Success  along  this  line  de- 
pends upon  industry,  adaptability,  and  continu- 
ous practice.  It  will  be  an  uphill  road  for  some 
time,  and  it  is  only  gradually  that  one  will  ac- 
quire that  mastery  of  the  subject  and  that  tact 
in;  the  -manipulation  of  a  somewhat  complex 
machinery  that  come  only  through  toil  and 
pains. 
Dull  Machine  Work.— It  does  not  require  a 


1 8   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK. 

prophet  to  see  that  the  five  steps  in  careless 
hands  will  degenerate  into  a  dry  mechanical 
routine.  It  might  be  even  worse  than  text-book 
lore,  for  a  good  text-book  is  always  better  than 
a  poor  teacher.  It  is  not  intended  that  this 
plan  and  these  principles  shall  make  a  slave  of 
the  teacher,  but  that  by  a  hard-earned  mastery 
of  their  details,  and  by  a  successful  application 
of  them  to  the  concrete  materials  of  study,  he 
gradually  works  his  way  out  into  the  clear  day- 
light of  conscious  power.  In  this  way  the 
teacher  becomes  a  skilled  architect,  with  clear 
ideas  of  the  strength  and  resistance  of  ma- 
terials. 

Examples  of  the  Formal  Steps. — Three  simple 
illustrations  of  this  succession  of  steps  in  the 
treatment  of  a  subject  will  now  be  given. 
Some  criticisms  which  have  been  raised  against 
this  plan  will  then  be  discussed.  Finally,  the 
translation  of  Professor  Rein's  introduction  to 
the  formal  steps  will  be  appended. 

(i)   Statement  of  the  Aim. 

We  will  examine  and  study  the  oak  trees  found 
in  our  forests. 

i.  (Preparation.)  Let  the  class  recall  what 
they  have  seen  of  oak  trees  in  the  woods,  size 
of  trees,  acorns.  Do  they  remember  the  shape 
and  size  of  the  leaves  ?  What  is  the  appear- 
ance of  the  wood  and  what  is  it  used  for? 

(The   purpose   of  the  teacher  here  is  not  to 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    1 9 

present  any  new  facts  to  the  class,  but  simply 
to  find  out  what  they  remember  from  previous 
observation  and  to  excite  interest.) 

2.  (Presentation  of  facts.)     The  best  plan  is 
to  visit  the  woods  or  an  oak  grove,  notice  care- 
fully the  trunk  and  bark,  branches  and  leaves, 
acorns    (food    of    squirrels.)     On    returning   to 
school,  have  an  accurate  description  of  the  oak 
tree  from  the  class,  according  to  definite  points 
(e.g.    trunk    and    bark,    branches,    leaves,    and 
acorns.)     Then  follows  a  discussion  of  oak  wood 
for   chairs,  desks,  doors   and   windows,  beams, 
posts    and    other    building    purposes,   bridges, 
walks,  etc.     (The  teacher  adds  such  facts  as  the 
children  cannot  furnish.) 

3.  (Comparison.)     Name  the  different  kinds 
of  oak — white  oak,  red  oak,  burr  oak.    Notice  the 
differences  in  leaves  and  acorns,  size  of  trees, 
wood  and  uses. 

4.  (Classification,  generalization.)     Definition 
of  the  oak  family.     The  oak  is  a  native  hard- 
wood tree.     It  has  acorns,  and  simple  leaves  of 
nearly  uniform  shape.     The  wood  is  tough  and. 
strong,  of  varying  colors,  but  always  useful  for 
furniture,  building  or   other  purposes.     (After 
the   previous   observation    and    discussion,    the 
pupils  will  be  able  to  give  a  definition  similar  to 
this,   assisted    by   a   few    questions    from    the 
teacher.) 

5.  (Application.)     Children  should  be  trained 
to   recognize  the   different    kinds    of   oak  trees 


$9  ELEMENTS  OP  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK. 

about.home, and  to  distinguish  them  from  other 
hard- wood  trees.  They  may  also  notice  the  oak 
panels  and  furniture,  and  be  able  to  tell  oak 
finishing  in  public  and  private  houses. 

Note.—  If  there  is  time  enough  for  a  separate  study  of  two 
or  Tiiofti  varieties  of  oak,  and-the  trees  are  close  by  so  as  to  he 
sefn,TJt;ig;well  to  treM  each  variety  according  to  the  first  and 
second /itapSj,,  ^nd  in  the  third  compare  as  above. 

zjnioq  aJinfte.b.rOJ  :„,,     „  .,        .  - 

(2)   The  Cotton-? in. 

.897B91      ,?SflonB-:  P 

(Aim.)     We  .will  find  out  how  a  machine 
invented  to  remove  the  seed. from. cotton. 

1.  (Preparation.)     Question  the  class  cm  the 
cotton-plant,  raising   and    picking  cotton.^nd' 
the  uses  of  cotton. 

2.  (Presentation.)     Tell,' or  read  the   story  of 
Whitney  and  the  invention  of   the   cotton-gin. 
Notice  the  effects  of  this  invention  on  the  pro- 
duction of  cotton  in   the  South,  and  upon  the 
growth  of.  the  South. 

3.  (Comparison.),    Najm^  other  important  in- 
ventions    and     their    effects,— sewing-machine, 
pr^n.tmg-press,  steam-engine,  reaper,  steamboat, 
telegraph,  etc.     Which  of  these  had    the  most 
important  results? 

4.  (Generalization  or  abstraction.)     Call  upon 
the  children  to  state  the  general  purpose  of  all 
these  inventions,  to  save  labor,  to  make  a. better  • 
use  ctf  the  forces  of  nature. 

5.  (Ap^ic^itioftJ  nj>o  any  hardships  result  :to 
anybody  in  consequence  of  these  useful  inven- 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOQ-DvRMGfTATJQK.WOKK.    21 


of  .e 

use.Qf  nfechinery(()n  B  iBiiv/  llo:  y^m   uov  nin' 
bomsonoo  OTB   > 
)»i4ft»9*lT)  ^  )&dw  Jo 

ose  thai:  a  Glass'has'had  oral  and  written 


• 
(Aim.)     In  Xal^i^^and  ^i 

,  We 
now  about  a 


*  io  noiJ 

fe%)   iflfe^yn  fe^Ic 

before  ?" 


sentence.     ;<  The  ship  sa^no^r  ^e^  ocean." 

(It   may  be  that    these  questions  cannot"  be 
answered  by  the  children  fojr  lack  of  knowledge. 


and  ift 

B  o     rnaiil    lieiv;   i>v/    :K.'!V/    nc 


e,  Called  nouns,  ^^y^,  ^l^bteift0- 
hpuse,  carpet,  pictur^-  w^ft,  sh^ 
tain.     Hay^^Qu  ^e^^y^g^hings  ?.;b 


fi  w(jrds  fttfn^)1 


.r1r;-  ': 

^^f^^f6  words  and 

th^:noup;s;?    ^pok,  at  the  nouns  again  and  tell 
what  they  refer  to.  MJJ  O 


22   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

4.  (Definition.)     Looking  at  our  list  of  nouns 
again  you  may  tell  what  a  noun  is.     So  far  as 
these  words  are  concerned   every   noun   is  the 
name  of  what  ?  (The  conclusion  that  the  children 
may  reach  by  a  little  good  questioning  is  that 
all  these  nouns  are  the  names  of  objects.     The 
treatment  of  proper  nouns  and  abstract  nouns 
may  be  according  to  a  similar  method   in  the 
following  lessons,  and  then  the  complete  defini- 
tion of  a  noun  can  be  obtained.) 

5.  (Application.)    Each  child  may  make  a  list 
of  nouns  that  we  have  not  had. 

Let  easy  sentences  be  given  in  which  they 
may  point  out  the  nouns. 

CRITICISMS. 

Anticipating  Results. — One  objection  raised  to 
the  clear  statement  of  the  aim  of  a  lesson  at  the 
start  was  that  in  such  a  statement  we  tell  the 
children  what  we  wish  them  to  find  out  for 
themselves,  that  we  anticipate  results  which 
they  should  learn  to  discover  and  state.  This 
criticism  is  just  if  true.  But  it  is  a  misconcep- 
tion of  the  proposed  manner  of  stating  the  aim. 
It  is  a  fundamental  principle  that  the  statement 
of  the  aim  should  not  anticipate  results.  It 
should  be  definite  and  clear,  but  it  should  state 
a  problem  for  solution.  It  should  point  in  the 
direction  of  the  result  without  giving  the  clue. 
If  the  teacher  proposes  to  develop  and  illus- 
trate the  law  of  multiple  proportions  in  phys- 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK.    2$ 

ics,  he  would  not  state  the  law  as  the  aim,  but 
put  it  in  some  such  form  as  this:  We  have 
noticed  that  certain  chemical  elements  unite  to 
form  compounds;  we  will  next  investigate  the 
question  as  to  whether  they  unite  according  to 
any  definite  law.  Experiment  and  investiga- 
tion will  reveal  what  the  law  is. 

Pupil's  Work. — Another  serious  criticism  of 
this  plan  of  class-work  is  that  it  outlines  well 
the  work  of  the  teacher,  but.  what  does  the  pupil 
have  to  do  ? 

We  will  attempt  to  illustrate  as  follows: 
(Preparation.)  The  pupil  has  to  prepare  his 
lesson  before  coming  to  the  class.  This  is  done 
in  all  good  schools.  Suppose  that  the  subject 
treated  is  the  early  discovery  and  exploration  of 
the  Ohio  Valley  previous  to  the  French  and  In- 
dian War.  The  teacher  proposes  this  as  the  next 
topic  for  history  study.  If  this  subject  is  treated 
according  to  the  recitation  plan,  the  first  thing  is 
to  determine  how  much  or  how  little  the  children 
know  of  the  proposed  subject.  Who  were  the 
first  explorers  of  the  Ohio  Valley  ?  Whence 
came  they  ?  Who  owned  the  land  ?  The  topics 
naturally  brought  out  by  this  brief  questioning 
<tre,  The  French,  the  English,  the  Indians.  Hav- 
ing determined  thus  what  the  children  know, 
and  having  excited  their  curiosity,  the  next  work 
for  the  teacher  (at  this  stage)  is  to  indicate  what 
pages  of  the  text-book  and,  if  desirable,  what 
pages  in  other  histories  bear  directly  upon  this 


24   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TJufr 

topic.  :  If  Lhe-.refereii<riets  a#e:*n6re  ttiaft'-'one'  per- 
son wUV/haveetime.tocltiotkfifrp^cena'Mi  persbns'ot 
sectirojas  of  the  class  may  be  asked  to  be  pre- 
p^redojni  .special  /.poirits/'rcft'''/bo5dk6»-1  off  'f-efereftce. 
The  xvork  of.  preparing:  tbe  lefcson  'by  studying 
up  these;  references  isi-sitpilir  t^4hat-tef:1fesso(M 
as  usually  assigtred^I  adj  Jcrfv/  Insva-t  lliv/  noiJ 
to  (Rresjent 
not  only  to 

studied,    but   to  ^a  51-'  'close 
tional    facts    and    topics    presented 
pupils^-arnd''-JCc^®e^4P44^f  tail  J&Wan^e'ItHe  -'f^cts 
prieaentedrqbyi  thtii^tejilfl  itffEss  (i^td  ^sy^tferniaitic 

oral 


tfa  e.'opupil  i'-jnus^t  nba^e>  '/hte  twits': 
ersft 
fols 


.!  Joaf.dua  airlJ  H    .vbuJs  -rio^iri  to^  aiqoi 
pith  t^(^te0i%bi|o%o<rtr4WSTp^k(Myt^'W^fe 
i  Witfe^tnfe''/fi)rk§fI<Wd-  steps; 
^^ 

.  ^  v-;[i!-,7  otdO    e>dj    1 
aoiTIhe  ittUrd 
facts  obfe 


ff  Is  f^ll 

them  !tt>!'repfo'dliGe  similar 
history  wh^Pe  t)he:iE^$teh^a^id"Fre?i^&«th$  Eng- 
Ksfevand'  Dtftofo,  the  f  JEftg^ish1  •  aiTd  -  S^a%?sh  <ha  ve 
both  r  explored'  ^tid'-^aid^'dMtW^  !§>fiie\v   terri- 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITATION  WORK,  &§ 

tory,  causing  conflicting  -claims:  e.g.  the  claim 
of  the  English  and  French  to  Nova  Scotia;  the 
claim  of  English  a.nd->&Utch' to  New-York;  the 
claim-; of -English  and  Spanish  ;to  Georgia;  and 
Carolina;  etc..:'rrne>j  fi  to  anoiaivib  aasrlT  .znob 

The.  clear  statement,  of  .each  ok<thefeeocases 
and  their  comparison  will  bring  o:ut,, a  common 
conclusion  from  the  children  regarding  them  all 
(fourth  step).  What, did  all. these  claims  rest 
Y:PQOi-#fld  how  wierd  they  enforced  ?  The;  pupil's 
own  intelligence  and  moral  niadgmetrt  aTejabund:- 
antly  sufficient  to  answer; jtfeefce  questions.  •  The 
conclusion  thus  reached  Will  rproba"bly:,poiaitnto 
the  manner  in  wftidb  theijclaifn^ta.'tbe  ;Okio 
Vrftllfiy.Was  settled  (fifth  step^oca  io  altBJab  ad; 

After  a  topic  has  been  fc'hh'S  f ulty  treated^ ber- 
for£  -and  .during;  the jrebitationy: it-  will  often 
prove  an  excellent  exercise  to;  call ;£oDf&  written 
composition  giving  , a -ffulkrdiscussien^ocfr/this 
.topic.,.  The  pupil  i$  leftttfresictpqtrSat  .ihaerimain 
topics  in  his  own  way,  Theroiiit'Hne^jfi^faft^siib- 
ject  has  beernf-^r^ady:  .fuUy);d.ev§^tDpi3di?.irt 
filas^,  but  the  pupil  is  free  to 
in  his  own  language,  and :-tQ: 
elusions..^  9di  isid  ['i'rrr  yn  veb-oT  " 

:  Jgol  JerfJ  hi 
TRANSLATION  FROM  PROF.  Wj,g^^«.^s 

ScHULJ:A^';dj  fiji7/  b3! 
The  Formal  Steps  in, ,t^khQflUiDi^— Proceed- 
ing now  to  the  act  of  instruction,  it-self;  we  jiQt'ice 
first  ;of.  all;: that  .the    subject;-.raatter  of    .ev«ry 


26   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    - 

study  like  Arithmetic  or  Geography  is  to  be 
divided  up  into  a  large  number  of  smaller 
parts,  units  of  instruction,  each  of  which  will 
occupy  from  one  to  four,  or  even  more,  recita- 
tions. These  divisions  of  a  term's  work  in  His- 
tory or  Geography  are  what  Ziller  calls  methodi- 
cal unities,  and  each  one  of  them  is  to  be  carried 
through  the  successive  steps  of  a  systematic 
recitation  plan,  namely,  the  formal  steps. 

For  if  the  single  topics  which  go  to  make  up 
the  great  variety  of  school  studies  are  to  be 
clearly  understood  and  thoroughly  assimilated, 
each  must  be  worked  over  by  itself.  For  this 
purpose  sufficient  time  must  be  given  so  that 
the  details  of  each  object  can  be  absorbed,  and 
this  absorption  with  the  details  must  be  suc- 
ceeded by  a  period  of  recollection,  a  brief  sur- 
vey of  the  situation,  a  glance  backwards  and 
forwards,  so  as  to  fix  the  relations  of  this  object 
to  others.  Suppose  that  the  instruction  in  a 
class  begins  with  one  of  these  methodical  unities. 
The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  make  plain  to  the  pupils 
the  general  object  or  aim  of  the  lesson.  In  a 
primary  class,  for  instance,  the  aim  may  be  so 
expressed:  "  To-day  we  will  hear  the  story  of  a 
little  girl  that  lost  both  father  and  mother."  For 
a  more  advanced  class  as  follows:  "  We  are  ac- 
quainted with  the  earth  as  a  great  ball  hanging 
in  space.  We  will  next  see  whether  this  ball  is 
at  rest  or  in  motion." 

Reasons  for  Stating  the  Aim  at  First.— There 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    2/ 

are  several  important  reasons  in  favor  of  the 
plain  statement  of  the  purpose  of  a  recitation 
at  the  beginning,  i.  It  pushes  aside  and  out 
of  view  those  irrelevant  thoughts  which  chance 
to  occupy  the  mind  before  the  recitation,  and  it 
accordingly  makes  room  for  those  ideas  which 
are  about  to  be  developed.  2.  It  transplants 
the  children  into  the  new  circle  of  ideas  which 
are  to  demand  their  attention,  and  it  encour- 
ages the  rise  in  the  child's  mind  of  those  older 
and  kindred  thoughts  which  will  be  most  wel- 
come supports  to  the  new  ideas  about  to  be  pre- 
sented. 3.  It  excites  expectation,  and  this  is 
the  most  favorable  disposition  of  mind  for  the 
beginning  instruction.  4.  It  gives  the  child  a 
strong  incentive  to  an  exercise  of  the  will,  and 
impels  it  to  voluntary  co-operation  in  solving 
the  difficulties  of  the  proposed  lesson. 

The  last  point  is  of  fundamental  importance, 
and  worthy  of  a  special  consideration.  The 
pupil  should  know  beforehand  what  is  coming 
if  he  is  to  bring  all  his  powers  to  bear  on  the 
work  of  learning,  and  it  is  easier  to  call  out 
all  his  effort  if  he  knows  beforehand  just  what 
is  to  be  gained.  To  conduct  a  child  along  an 
unknown  road  toward  an  unknown  object,  by 
means  of  questions  and  hints,  the  object  of 
which  he  does  not  see,  to  lead  him  on  imper- 
ceptibly to  an  unknown  goal,  has  the  disadvan- 
tage that  it  develops  neither  a  spontaneous  men- 
tal activity  nor  a  clear  insight  into  the  subject. 


28   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

Having  reached  the  end  of  such  a  line  of 
thought,  the  pupil  looks  about  himself  bewil- 
dered. He  cannot  survey  the  road  that  he  has 
just  gone  over.  He  does  not  comprehend  what 
has  happened  to  him.  He  stands  at  the  goal, 
but  does  not  see  the  relation  in  which  the  re- 
sult stands  to  the  labor  performed.  He  does 
not  rise  to  that  satisfactory  mental  activity  and 
favorable  disposition  of  mind  which  are  stimu- 
lated by  the  pursuit  of  a  clearly  set  purpose. 
No  aim,  no  will!  Now  since  an  instruction  that 
aims  at  moral  character  finds  its  highest  pur- 
pose in  the  development  of  will  power,  it 
follows  that  a  lesson  should  develop  the  will 
just  as  much  as  the  understanding.  But  to 
develop  will-power,  instruction  must  pursue 
plainly  set  aims,  and  to  reach  them  the  pupil 
must  be  called  upon  to  throw  all  his  mental 
powers  into  the  effort. 

The  general  purpose  of  a  lesson  having  been 
made  plain,  the  real  work  of  teaching  then  be- 
gins, and  in  every  methodical  unity  this  work 
runs  through  a  succession  of  five  steps. 

First  Step. — The  first  step  in  this  process  con- 
sists in  a  preparation  of  the  ground  for  the  re- 
ception of  the  new  lesson.  This  is  done  by 
freshening  up  and  calling  clearly  to  the  mind 
such  older  ideas  as  bear  upon  the  new,  such  as 
by  their  similarity  explain  and  assist  the  under- 
standing of  the  new.  It  is  only  when  a  troop 
of  old  familiar  ideas  come  forth  to  meet  the 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    2g 

strangers  that  they  are  received  easily  into  the 
mind.  It  is  in  this  way  alone  that  they  can 
make  a  lasting  impression  upon  the  thoughts 
aud  feelings.  If  these  forces  which  lie  asleep 
in  the  background  of  one's  thoughts  are  not 
called  into  activity,  one  will  remain  dull  and 
indifferent  to  the  recitation,  and  the  instruction 
reminds  us  of  a  learned  discourse  which  shoots 
over  the  heads  of  the  listeners.  Instead  of  in- 
terested attention  and  participation,  it  produces 
only  weariness  of  mind. 

This  result  will  always  follow  when  that 
which  is  said  awakens  no  chords  of  sympathy 
in  the  minds  of  the  hearers.  If  nothing  springs 
forth  from  within  to  greet  that  coming  from 
without,  the  lesson  will  be  meaningless  and  the 
pupil  unreceptive.  Things  new  and  strange 
can  only  be  appropriated  by  means  of  a  wealth 
of  old  ideas,  and  the  plan  of  recitation  must 
see  to  the  preparation  of  these  old  materials 
during  the  first  step. 

Second  Step. — The  second  step  begins  with  the 
presentation  of  the  new  lesson,  which  will  vary 
in  manner  according  to  the  age  of  pupils  and 
the  nature  of  the  study.  A  story  would  be 
related  to  a  primary  class,  or  developed  accord- 
ing to  the  conversational  method.  A  reading 
lesson  for  older  pupils  would  be  read.  A  geog- 
raphy topic  would  be  presented  by  the  teacher 
while  talking  and  drawing,  and  a  subject  in 
physics  while  experimenting  and  speaking.  If 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

the  preparation  has  been  of  the  right  kind  the 
lesson  will  be  appropriated  with  ease  and 
certainty,  and  the  teacher  will  not  be  compelled 
to  talk  and  ask  and  explain  all  round  the  sub- 
ject. Whenever  this  is  necessary  the  prepara- 
tion, the  first  step,  must  be  regarded  as  a  failure. 
What  has  been  learned  is  not  only  to  be  mo- 
mentarily understood,  but  permanently  appro- 
priated. It  is  necessary  to  close  up  this  step  with 
repetition  and  drill,  and  these  must  be  continued 
under  varying  forms  till  the  lesson  has  been 
firmly  fixed.  In  this  manner  the  first  great  act 
in  the  process  of  teaching  and  learning  has  been 
completed,  namely,  the  presentation  and  recep- 
tion of  the  subject-matter,  and  it  consists,  as  we 
have  seen,  of  two  steps,  preparation  of  the 
ground  and  presentation  of  the  lesson.  The 
second  act  within  the  limits  of  a  methodical 
unity  is  the  process  of  building  up  and  bring- 
ing into  distinct  form  the  general  or  abstract 
ideas  which  are  to  be  drawn  from  the  concrete 
materials  already  collected,  and  this  second  act 
is  brought  to  a  conclusion  in  the  three  following 
steps. 

Third  Step. — In  the  third  step  we  are  to  bring 
together  in  the  mind  the  newly  won  ideas,  to 
compare  them  among  themselves  and  with 
older  ideas,  and  when  necessary  with  additional 
new  ones  still  to  be  presented;  in  short,  to  com- 
pare and  to  combine  the  new  and  the  old. 
Such  a  comparison  and  union  of  ideas  is  neces- 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  XECITA  T10N  WORK.    3 1 

sary  for  two  reasons:  (i)  in  order  that  con- 
nection and  harmony  be  established  in  one's 
range  of  ideas,  and  (2)  that  what  is  general 
and  essential  in  the  midst  of  special  individ- 
ual things  may  be  extracted  from  them.  No- 
where should  heterogeneous  heaps  of  knowl- 
edge, like  piles  of  gravel,  be  brought  together. 
Always  and  everywhere  there  should  be  an 
effort  towards  well  associated  and  systematized 
knowledge.  "  Our  whole  personality  rests  in 
the  end  upon  the  unity  of  consciousness,  and 
this  is  disturbed  and  injured  when  the  mind  is 
driven  through  a  confused  conglomerate  of 
knowledge  in  which  unconnected  ideas  are  piled 
up  together." 

But  every  concrete  individual  thing  which  is 
treated  as  a  methodical  unity  contains  or  em- 
bodies a  general  truth,  an  abstract  notion,  which 
may  be  separated  from  the  concrete  thing  in 
which  it  is  embodied.  But  it  can  only  be 
brought  to  light  by  bringing  this  object  into 
comparison  with  other  well-known  concrete  ob- 
jects which  contain  the  same  essential  idea  or 
truth,  by  bringing  together  in  the  mind  things 
similar  but  not  identical.  That  which  is  com- 
mon and  essential  to  all  is  strengthened  by 
repetition,  while  accidental  features  and  differ- 
ences drop  easily  into  the  background.  The 
common  truth  which  all  the  objects  embody 
springs  forth  as  a  new  idea  of  higher  potency, 
as  a  general  notion,  as  a  rule  or  law. 


32   ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK. 

Fourth  Step. — But  the  abstract  idea  is  still 
bound  up  with  the  concrete  thing;  a  complete 
separation  of  this  abstract  or  general  notion 
from  its  clothing  in  particulars  has  not  yet  taken 
place:  and  this  is  the  purpose  of  the  fourth 
step.  By  means  of  a  few  well-directed  ques- 
tions we  call  out  into  pure  and  simple  relief  the 
general  truth  or  rule,  freed  from  its  particular 
applications.  We  reduce  this  idea  to  definite 
language  expression,  and  finally  bring  it  into 
systematic  connection  with  our  previously  ac- 
quired knowledge.  It  only. remains  to  impress 
the  abstract  ideas  thus  acquired  upon  the  mind 
by  repetition,  so  as  to  convert  them  into  a  real 
mental  possession.  With  this  the  process  of 
abstraction  is  complete,  but  teaching  cannot 
afford  to  end  the  matter  here.  A  fifth  step  is 
needed  to  convert  the  knowledge  acquired  intd 
use. 

Fifth  Step. — Knowledge  and  ability  to  know 
have  of  themselves  no  value  either  for  the  indi- 
vidual or  for  society.  Knowledge  must  first 
step  into  the  service  of  life.  One  must  know 
how  to  apply  his  knowledge.  Knowledge  and 
power  must  be  changed  into  use;  they  must  be 
transformed  into  conscious  ability.  But  will 
not  this  take  care  of  itself?  Not  at  all.  Hun- 
dreds of  children  have  learned  how  to  estimate 
the  surface  of  a  triangle,  and  many  of  them 
can  give  the  proof  of  the  rule  with  ease  and 
precision.  But  put  the  question  to  one  of  them: 


ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  TION  WORK.    33 

How  many  acres  does  a  triangular  garden  con- 
tain ?  He  will  stand  helpless,  unconscious  of 
the  fact  that  he  possesses  in  his  own  mind  all 
the  necessary  elements  for  the  solution  of  the 
problem.  How  is  this  explained  ?  He  has  not 
learned  to  employ  his  knowledge.  It  is  a  dead 
possession.  And  are  there  not  plenty  of  such 
cases  ?  The  conclusion  is  that  even  the  applica- 
tion, the  use  of  knowledge,  has  to  be  learned. 
"  Here  also  it  is  only  practice  that  makes  the 
master.  But  drill  which  aims  only  at  mechani- 
cal habit  is  not  sufficient.  Even  during  school 
life  that  which  is  learned  should  be  applied  as 
often  and  in  as  many  cases  as  the  narrow  limits 
of  the  child's  life  permits." 

Since  the  value  of  knowledge  culminates  in 
use,  instruction  should  cultivate  its  use  so  far  as 
possible  in  a  closing  step  called  application.  For 
this  purpose  the  child  should  be  held  to  a  dili- 
gent use  of  its  stock  of  ideas  as  rapidly  as  they 
are  acquired,  to  go  from  the  particular  to  the 
general,  and  back  again  from  the  general  to  the 
particular,  to  traverse  his  circle  of  ideas  from  a 
given  standpoint  in  all  directions,  and  to  make 
use  of  the  results  reached  for  the  solution  of 
moral,  theoretical,  and  practical  questions.  In 
this  manner  a  child's  acquired  ideas  may  be  so 
developed,  so  welded  together  in  firm,  system- 
atic, comprehensive  association,  that  all  his 
knowledge  becomes  a  reliable,  personal  posses- 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  GOOD  RECITA  T10N  WORK. 

sion.  It  is  clear  and  systematic  as  well  as  prac- 
tical. 

And  this  ends  the  development  of  general 
notions  within  the  limits  of  the  formal  steps  of 
instruction. 

To  recapitulate:  In  the  work  of  instruction 
each  methodical  unity  should  be  carried  through 
the  following  steps: 

1.  It   should    introduce   the    new   lesson    by 
means  of  a  preparatory  discussion. 

2.  Present  the  new  lesson. 

3.  Compare   the    new   in   its   parts    and  with 
older  ideas  and  their  combination. 

4.  Draw  out"  the  general  results  of  this  com- 
parison, and  arrange  them  in  systematic  form. 

5.  Convert  the  knowledge  acquired  into  use. 


OJf 


CHILD  STUDY 


Hall's  Contents  of  Children's  Minds  on  Entering 

SCHOOL.  By  Dr.  G.  STANLEY  HALL.  Details  the  results  of  an  inquiry 
into  a  matter  of  much  importance  to  primary  teachers.  A  knowledge 
of  what  the  average  child  already  knows  when  be  first  goes  to  school 
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how  to  teach  him. 

This  little  book  gives  the  results  of  careful  investigations  made  by  the 
writer  and  others  to  determine  the  amount  and  kind  of  knowledge  pos- 
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valuable  field  of  inquiry  and  shows  how  it  may  be  carried  on.  It  is  sure 
to  interest  teachers. 

All  "  Child  Study"  organizations  should  read  this  bpok.  Dr.  Hall  is 
the  acknowledged  leader  of  the  child  study  movement  in  this  country. 

Size,  63-8x4  1-2  inches.    56  pages.    Limp  cloth  covers.    2  5  cent*. 

Hall's  A  Study  of  Dolls, 

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most  complete  and  satisfactory  investigations  along  the  line  of  "Child 
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in  a  form  tor  general  circulation  tnd  must  prove  of  the  greatest  value  to 
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Size,  71-4x5  inches.  69  pages.  Limp  cloth  cover.  35  cents. 

Hall's  Story  of  a  Sand  Pile. 

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Borne  years  ago  in  ScrQmer's  Magazine  and  is  now  for  the  first  time 
made  accessible  to  the  great  body  of  teachers.  All  interested  in  the 
great  child  study  movement  should  read  this  very  suggestive  story. 
A  photograph  ot  the  "  Sand  Pile  "  is  given.  Limp  cloth.  «5  cento. 

Perez's  First  Three  Years  of  Childhood. 

By  BEHNABD  PEBEZ,  Edited  and  translated  by  Alice  M.  Chrystie,  with 
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This  is  the  most  widely  known  and  without  doubt  the  greatest  and 
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Our  edition  is  the  handsomest  published.  It  has  a  new  index  of  value 
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